Chapter 1: Before History
The emergence of the human race is predated by the existence of pre-human hominids whom are now recognized as our ancestors. The time line for hominids begins about four to five million years ago, and our own species emerges around two hundred thousand years ago. It is noted that the human species shares nearly the same DNA as other primates, like chimpanzees. Because of small differences in genetic makeup and chemistry, human beings are distinguished by a higher intelligence and an ability to exercise much greater control over the natural world. For example, humans have been able to devise tools, technologies, language skills, and sophisticated means of cooperation and communication that other primates do not rival. It is evident that this higher intelligence possessed among humans was the source of potential for sophisticated cultural and social developments.
The Old Stone Age or the Paleolithic society was the earliest, longest period of the human species’ history on Earth, and they were foraging and hunting for good, and principally were made up of hunting-and-gathering societies. This was a period when humans had to stalk animals for food and therefore they were nomadic in lifestyle. There was no wealth or private property. Many scholars assert that humans were able to construct powerful languages and thus able to communicate complex ideas. This meant that humans could pass on knowledge to new generations based on this transmission of abstract symbols and that each new generation could use the knowledge accumulated in previous generations. One of the common links between generations is creativity. The earliest known examples of the cave paintings show how these early humans were exercising their creative imaginations and how they were able to provide a glimpse into their sensitivity and creative power.
The New Stone Age or the Neolithic era is defined by the transition from hunting-and-gathering societies to agricultural societies. These New Stone Age societies were settled societies and producing edible crops and created opportunities for human civilization to begin to flower. It is cited in the text around 9000 B.C.E. that peoples almost at the same time around the globe began to domesticate animals and cultivate crops. These societies were distinctive by remaining settled in one place and growing larger over time. These societies also developed hierarchies of authority in both religion and government. This is also a transition period when people in these settled societies began to evolve division of labor and social ranks. Private property also evolved as an important means of wealth. This ownership of land became an important source of economic and political power in the Neolithic era. The Neolithic religion reflected the same interest in fertility as the Paleolithic peoples, but also celebrated the particular aspects of the governed agricultural society.
Within four thousand years, the agricultural revolution also generated the origins of urban life for human beings. These were a natural outgrowth of complex societies and they were distinctive from towns and villages. Specialized crafts and industries emerged in these earliest cities. This meant that classes of professionals emerged. For instance, the cities also provided the first class of professional managers who included the governors, administrators, military strategists, and tax collectors. This was also an important development for religions as specialized classes of religious authorizes, like priests, who were more sophisticated than their Paleolithic counterparts, the shamans. These urban cities were also important because they evolved a sophisticated and complex system of economic, social, and political systems, as well as religious systems, which influenced people. These urban centers became the focal points of public affairs and served as the basis for the rise of the first great human civilizations.
Chapter 2: Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European Migrations
Mesopotamia or ‘The Land between the Rivers’ is considered the cradle of human civilization that evolved around 4000 B.C.E. with the world’s first cities. These cities were distinctive from the villages and towns. These cities featured sophisticated marketplaces drawing large numbers of buyers and sellers, but also were defined by political and military institutions. The priests of organized religious were important figures in these earliest cities. They were also responsible for originating the traditions of writing and formal education. Some of these earliest cities included Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Nippur, Kish, and others. It is noted that in all of these Sumerian cities they were defined by palaces, temples, and defensive walls. One of the most impressive architectural structures of these earliest cities was the ziggurats. One of the most famous of these was the ziggurat in Uruk which was constructed around 3200 B.C.E.
As these city-states warred with each other, conflicted with each other, and cooperated with each other, they were eventually merging together to form two distinctive empires, the Babylonians of northern Mesopotamia and the Sumerians of southern Mesopotamia. One of the first great conquerors was Sargon of Akkad, a city near Kish and Babylon, who took the fight to the Sumerians in 2334 B.C.E. He began to merge together all the city-states through military force and conquest. This was continued under less able emperors but the empire went into decline until the emergence of the Babylonian Hammurabi in 1792-1750 B.C.E. He introduced a centralized bureaucracy and regular taxes. He also provided for all of human civilization the first set of codified laws. Hammurabi’s laws established standards for behavior and harsh punishments for offenders. Civil laws were separated from criminal laws. For example, the civil laws covered such things as prices, wages, commercial dealings, marriage, and the conditions of slavery.
The legacy of the Mesopotamian civilization is rich and important for the advancement of the human race. Writing has to be considered one of the most important contributions because it laid the foundation for education, science, literature, and religious reflection. Another important legacy was economic specialization. For instance, the Mesopotamians were responsible for innovating bronze metallurgy, iron metallurgy, the wheel, shipbuilding, and extensive trade networks. An additional legacy of the Mesopotamian civilization is the emergence of a stratified patriarchal society. These ruling classes of kings and nobles accumulated massive wealth and owned large tracts of properties which were worked on by gangs of slaves. These kings and nobles became seen as offspring of the gods and goddesses and this myth was incorporated into the civilization’s religious traditions. The cities were often constructed with these huge palaces and ziggurats that indeed were commemorating the high status of the kings and nobles. Hammurabi’s laws give indications about the gender divisions and the gender roles of this ancient society. Women, however, were able to play some prominent roles as consultants to kings and nobles but also as high priestesses. By the second millennium B.C.E, it is evident that the social and sexual behavior of women was tightly controlled by men in the name of protecting their fortunes and guaranteeing the legitimacy of their heirs.
The broader influence of Mesopotamia can be found with the ancient Hebrews and Phoenicians. Abraham, the patriarch of the Hebrew people, migrated from the Sumerian city of Ur about 1850 B.C.E. He can be considered to have brought with him and his immediate companions to the Mediterranean region the stories, laws, and myths of Mesopotamia. The Hebrew historical experiences can be found in their Torah which is the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. Like the Hebrews, the Phoenicians also were influenced by the Mesopotamian cultural factors and they formed city-states above the Hebrews near the Mediterranean region.
Chapter 3: Early African Societies and the Bantu Migrations
The two major African societies emphasized as key in early human civilization’s history are Nubia and Egypt. Both of these rest alongside the Nile River. Agricultural practices transformed this region. The Egyptians began to emerge as more sophisticated and complex as a society to the Nubians around 5000 B.C.E. It is thought that the notion of divine or semi-divine leaders reached Egypt and Nubia at this time from the eastern and central Sudan, where small kingdoms had been established. By 3500 B.C.E., Egypt began to evolve differently than Nubia by becoming a much larger empire than the smaller kingdoms it once was made of and that Menes was recognized as the original unifier of Egypt. Menes emerged around 3100 B.C.E. and founded the city of Memphis which is modern day Cairo that stood at the juncture of Upper and Lower Egypt. Menes innovated this central idea of having a state ruled by a supreme ruler or pharaoh. He also asserted this claim of being a living god living in human form on Earth. This was a traditional concept that was taken from the nearby Sudan.
The massive pyramids and legacies of these pharaohs are still evident today in modern day Egypt. The Archaic Period of 3100-2660 B.C.E. and the Old Kingdom of 2660-2160 B.C.E. were defined by these pharaohs who organized these sophisticated, complex societies that featured artistic and architectural wonders as well as advanced social, political, economic, and religious institutions. At this time frame, the Egyptians were still closely associated with nearby Nubia and they had interconnected political and commercial ties. The Egyptians also attempted to conquer Nubia at different periods during the height of the pharaohs. By 2500 B.C.E, the Nubians established a powerful kingdom called Kush with a capital at Kerma which meant more assimilation and integration with the larger, more complex Egyptian civilization. The Middle Kingdom of 2040-1640 B.C.E. and the New Kingdom of 1550-1070 B.C.E. had pharaohs but they were not as powerful as the Old Kingdom period. The Egyptian civilization finally went into decline and by 1100 B.C.E. were on the defensive against the Nubians and eventually lost to them where the kingdom of Kush was established that ruled over Egypt for almost a century around 760 B.C.E.
Egyptian civilization has a grand legacy in so many areas. The emergence of cities and stratified societies were important and the ancient cities in both Egypt and Nubia became the centers of wealth, commerce, and power. Egyptian civilization was distinctive by having a supreme central ruler in the pharaoh. There was little room for an extensive noble class in Egypt. The Egyptians instead relied on a professional military class. There was also a sophisticated complex of administrators and tax collectors. This meant that Egyptian society had many people of common birth who could attain high positions in society. Both Egyptian and Nubian societies can be seen as patriarchal societies with vested authority over public and private affairs. The elite men enjoyed comfortable positions, amassed wealth, and enjoyed high social status, while the men of the lower classes worked as agricultural workers, carpenters, potters, craftsmen and fishermen.
One of the most important contributions of Egyptian civilization is the sophisticated religious system. The principal gods revered in ancient Egypt were Anon and Re. The Egyptians were firm believers in life after death. For example, one of the most popular god cults that emerged was the cult of Osiris. Egyptians associated the Nile with Osiris and also with immortality and honored him with an observance of high moral standards. The Egyptians could enjoy eternal rewards for those who behaved according to high moral standards. In terms of the Nubians’ religious system, the most prominent Nubian deity was the lion-god Apedemak, and another one was the creator god and divine guardian of humans called Sebiumeker.
Chapter 4: Early Societies in South Asia
The Harappan society developed in the valley of a river, the Indus, among a series of Neolithic era villages along it and emerged as thriving cities over time by 3000 B.C.E. The difficulty in interpreting the society and way of life of the Harappans was that these cities are under the water table and therefore difficult to excavate, while also have struggled to interpret the language used by this ancient peoples. The sophisticated civilization emerged by 2500 B.C.E. Its city center was Mohenho-dare where goldsmiths, weavers, masons, architects, and professionals thrived and the wealth grew significantly. Although they did not build huge palaces or pyramids, there were social classes and the wealthy lived in comfortable living arrangements with private bathrooms with showers and toilets which drained into city sewage systems. These systems are considered some of the most sophisticated of the ancient world.
As the Harappan civilization declined, and soon would face a natural catastrophe, a combination of flooding and earthquakes, the Harappan traditions, customs, and beliefs lived on as the migrations began to flow into the Indian subcontinent and settled throughout the Indus valley and beyond. This included a nomadic people calling themselves Aryans who began to push outward into northern India and beyond. Although the Aryans did not have writing at first, they did have poems and hymns. These represented the Vedas with the most important collection being called the Rig Veda. The Aryan priests eventually compiled in written form the Rig Veda and the other Vedas between 1400 and 900 B.C.E. These Vedas give excellent insights into the religious beliefs, traditions, and customs of the Aryans. Once they evolved more sophisticated political institutions and religious traditions, the Aryans constructed a well-defined social order which became known as the caste system. This featured a sharp distinction between people based on heredity and that made the case system a permanent, unchangeable arrangement. By 1000 B.C.E., the cast system consisted of four which were the Brahmins or priests, the Kshatriyas or warriors/aristocrats, Vaishyyas or cultivators/artisans/merchants, and the Shudras or the landless peasants and serfs. Later on, the lowest caste was added called the Untouchables. This caste system has continued to impact the modern day nation of India.
Vedic India constructed a deeply patriarchal social order and a rich religious tradition evolved. The chief deity of the Rig Veda was Indra. This was primarily a war god. The Aryans also introduced the god Varuna that presided over the sky from his heavenly residence that oversaw the behavior of mortals and preserved the cosmic order. Veruna and his helpers were demanding moral behavior and moral standards and despised lying and evil deeds. The souls of the serious evildoers were delegated to the House of Clay which was the miserable realm of punishment. The Aryan heaven was the spiritual realm known as the World of the Fathers. The Vedas developed into full flower during the Vedic age involving the Upanishads between 800-400 B.C.E. The Upanishads presented the idea that appearances are deceiving and that individual humans are not separate and independent creatures but are members of a larger cosmic order. This means humans are a small part of a universal soul known as Brahman. This is the permanent, eternal, and unchanging foundation for all things that exist and is the only genuine reality. The concept of reincarnation was also introduced and that it meant individual souls were born over and over into the physical world and sometimes were reborn as animals and sometimes even plants or other vegetable matter. The highest goal of the individual soul was to escape this cycle of birth and rebirth to enter the permanent union with Brahman. The Upanishads were also responsible for influencing Indian thought about the need to establish high ethical standards with an emphasis on mercy, honesty, self-control, and charity. They also emphasized respect for all living things because every living thing had a soul.
Chapter 5: Early Society in East Asia
The early civilization of East Asia also rose up along rivers and these rivers were the Yellow River and the Yangzi River. By the end of 3000 B.C.E., these smaller towns and villages began to evolve into larger regional states that included the Xia, Shang, and Zhou. These evolved into sophisticated, complex societies in much the same way as the ancient civilizations elsewhere. They evolved sophisticated religious, social, economic, and political institutions. The Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were all important by being larger states that were extending territorial control over masses of people but they were not embracing all of the territory like later Chinese dynasties. The excavations that have been underway in just recent times have been able to piece together the legacy and history of these ancient dynasties which before were existing mainly in oral traditions and oral tales of these great dynasties.
The Shang dynasty was clearly evolving to a higher level than the Xia dynasty by having the production of bronze tools and weapons along the Yellow River. The professional class of craftsmen that emerged at this time between 1766-1122 B.C.E. featured the production of bronze axes, spears, knives, and arrowheads. This permitted the Shang to overrun the Xia and take control over this territorial region near the Yellow River. The Shang did not establish a centralized state but relied on local rulers and their shared agricultural pursuits. It can be said that Shang society revolved around several large cities and that the administrative and military bureaucracies were extremely powerful and important in holding together the dynasty. Little information exists about how the Shang administered law, justice, and administration but excavations have been producing a greater wealth of material to fill in the spaces and produce a clearer picture of this ancient time period.
The Zhou rose to replace the Shang in 1122 B.C.E. The Zhou remained clearly in power and centralized the power from this period all the way until 256 B.C.E. The Zhou dynasty introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven and that the rulers were governing here on Earth in coordination with the laws and criteria of Heaven. It was this concept that justified a dynastic rule and the rulers were clearly responsible for keeping moral order and moral standards in society through this Mandate of Heaven. The ruler would take the title “Son of Heaven.” This tradition would be retained for Chinese emperors and dynasties through the 12th century. The Zhou were able to rule effectively through decentralization of their authority. This meant power and responsibility was given to lower level administrators at the city and regional levels. This decentralized political system worked for a while but the Zhou rulers centered in Hao, which is modern day Xian, were unable to continue control over the many different regional rulers. For a time, the loyalty was showed by paying taxes and giving soldiers to the ruling family. The collapse of the Zhou dynasty, however, did not happen for a long period because of the decentralized arrangements and the lack of control by the ruling power at the center. It was finally achieved with the emergence of the Qin dynasty in 221 B.C.E.
Royal family and nobility occupied the highest levels of ancient Chinese society. These ruling classes were aware of monopolizing the weaponry and maintaining strong militaries to reinforce their control and rule over others. These Chinese aristocrats possessed large land holdings and they were also usually highly ranked in the administration and military branches of the governments. The other classes of Chinese ranged from the professional craftsmen to the artisans. A large class of peasants in the countryside provided the agricultural, military, and labor services of these dynastic ruling elites of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou in ancient China. The Chinese had a patriarchal society and placed special importance on the worship of ancestors.
Chapter 1: Before History
The emergence of the human race is predated by the existence of pre-human hominids whom are now recognized as our ancestors. The time line for hominids begins about four to five million years ago, and our own species emerges around two hundred thousand years ago. It is noted that the human species shares nearly the same DNA as other primates, like chimpanzees. Because of small differences in genetic makeup and chemistry, human beings are distinguished by a higher intelligence and an ability to exercise much greater control over the natural world. For example, humans have been able to devise tools, technologies, language skills, and sophisticated means of cooperation and communication that other primates do not rival. It is evident that this higher intelligence possessed among humans was the source of potential for sophisticated cultural and social developments.
The Old Stone Age or the Paleolithic society was the earliest, longest period of the human species’ history on Earth, and they were foraging and hunting for good, and principally were made up of hunting-and-gathering societies. This was a period when humans had to stalk animals for food and therefore they were nomadic in lifestyle. There was no wealth or private property. Many scholars assert that humans were able to construct powerful languages and thus able to communicate complex ideas. This meant that humans could pass on knowledge to new generations based on this transmission of abstract symbols and that each new generation could use the knowledge accumulated in previous generations. One of the common links between generations is creativity. The earliest known examples of the cave paintings show how these early humans were exercising their creative imaginations and how they were able to provide a glimpse into their sensitivity and creative power.
The New Stone Age or the Neolithic era is defined by the transition from hunting-and-gathering societies to agricultural societies. These New Stone Age societies were settled societies and producing edible crops and created opportunities for human civilization to begin to flower. It is cited in the text around 9000 B.C.E. that peoples almost at the same time around the globe began to domesticate animals and cultivate crops. These societies were distinctive by remaining settled in one place and growing larger over time. These societies also developed hierarchies of authority in both religion and government. This is also a transition period when people in these settled societies began to evolve division of labor and social ranks. Private property also evolved as an important means of wealth. This ownership of land became an important source of economic and political power in the Neolithic era. The Neolithic religion reflected the same interest in fertility as the Paleolithic peoples, but also celebrated the particular aspects of the governed agricultural society.
Within four thousand years, the agricultural revolution also generated the origins of urban life for human beings. These were a natural outgrowth of complex societies and they were distinctive from towns and villages. Specialized crafts and industries emerged in these earliest cities. This meant that classes of professionals emerged. For instance, the cities also provided the first class of professional managers who included the governors, administrators, military strategists, and tax collectors. This was also an important development for religions as specialized classes of religious authorizes, like priests, who were more sophisticated than their Paleolithic counterparts, the shamans. These urban cities were also important because they evolved a sophisticated and complex system of economic, social, and political systems, as well as religious systems, which influenced people. These urban centers became the focal points of public affairs and served as the basis for the rise of the first great human civilizations.
Chapter 2: Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European Migrations
Mesopotamia or ‘The Land between the Rivers’ is considered the cradle of human civilization that evolved around 4000 B.C.E. with the world’s first cities. These cities were distinctive from the villages and towns. These cities featured sophisticated marketplaces drawing large numbers of buyers and sellers, but also were defined by political and military institutions. The priests of organized religious were important figures in these earliest cities. They were also responsible for originating the traditions of writing and formal education. Some of these earliest cities included Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Nippur, Kish, and others. It is noted that in all of these Sumerian cities they were defined by palaces, temples, and defensive walls. One of the most impressive architectural structures of these earliest cities was the ziggurats. One of the most famous of these was the ziggurat in Uruk which was constructed around 3200 B.C.E.
As these city-states warred with each other, conflicted with each other, and cooperated with each other, they were eventually merging together to form two distinctive empires, the Babylonians of northern Mesopotamia and the Sumerians of southern Mesopotamia. One of the first great conquerors was Sargon of Akkad, a city near Kish and Babylon, who took the fight to the Sumerians in 2334 B.C.E. He began to merge together all the city-states through military force and conquest. This was continued under less able emperors but the empire went into decline until the emergence of the Babylonian Hammurabi in 1792-1750 B.C.E. He introduced a centralized bureaucracy and regular taxes. He also provided for all of human civilization the first set of codified laws. Hammurabi’s laws established standards for behavior and harsh punishments for offenders. Civil laws were separated from criminal laws. For example, the civil laws covered such things as prices, wages, commercial dealings, marriage, and the conditions of slavery.
The legacy of the Mesopotamian civilization is rich and important for the advancement of the human race. Writing has to be considered one of the most important contributions because it laid the foundation for education, science, literature, and religious reflection. Another important legacy was economic specialization. For instance, the Mesopotamians were responsible for innovating bronze metallurgy, iron metallurgy, the wheel, shipbuilding, and extensive trade networks. An additional legacy of the Mesopotamian civilization is the emergence of a stratified patriarchal society. These ruling classes of kings and nobles accumulated massive wealth and owned large tracts of properties which were worked on by gangs of slaves. These kings and nobles became seen as offspring of the gods and goddesses and this myth was incorporated into the civilization’s religious traditions. The cities were often constructed with these huge palaces and ziggurats that indeed were commemorating the high status of the kings and nobles. Hammurabi’s laws give indications about the gender divisions and the gender roles of this ancient society. Women, however, were able to play some prominent roles as consultants to kings and nobles but also as high priestesses. By the second millennium B.C.E, it is evident that the social and sexual behavior of women was tightly controlled by men in the name of protecting their fortunes and guaranteeing the legitimacy of their heirs.
The broader influence of Mesopotamia can be found with the ancient Hebrews and Phoenicians. Abraham, the patriarch of the Hebrew people, migrated from the Sumerian city of Ur about 1850 B.C.E. He can be considered to have brought with him and his immediate companions to the Mediterranean region the stories, laws, and myths of Mesopotamia. The Hebrew historical experiences can be found in their Torah which is the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. Like the Hebrews, the Phoenicians also were influenced by the Mesopotamian cultural factors and they formed city-states above the Hebrews near the Mediterranean region.
Chapter 3: Early African Societies and the Bantu Migrations
The two major African societies emphasized as key in early human civilization’s history are Nubia and Egypt. Both of these rest alongside the Nile River. Agricultural practices transformed this region. The Egyptians began to emerge as more sophisticated and complex as a society to the Nubians around 5000 B.C.E. It is thought that the notion of divine or semi-divine leaders reached Egypt and Nubia at this time from the eastern and central Sudan, where small kingdoms had been established. By 3500 B.C.E., Egypt began to evolve differently than Nubia by becoming a much larger empire than the smaller kingdoms it once was made of and that Menes was recognized as the original unifier of Egypt. Menes emerged around 3100 B.C.E. and founded the city of Memphis which is modern day Cairo that stood at the juncture of Upper and Lower Egypt. Menes innovated this central idea of having a state ruled by a supreme ruler or pharaoh. He also asserted this claim of being a living god living in human form on Earth. This was a traditional concept that was taken from the nearby Sudan.
The massive pyramids and legacies of these pharaohs are still evident today in modern day Egypt. The Archaic Period of 3100-2660 B.C.E. and the Old Kingdom of 2660-2160 B.C.E. were defined by these pharaohs who organized these sophisticated, complex societies that featured artistic and architectural wonders as well as advanced social, political, economic, and religious institutions. At this time frame, the Egyptians were still closely associated with nearby Nubia and they had interconnected political and commercial ties. The Egyptians also attempted to conquer Nubia at different periods during the height of the pharaohs. By 2500 B.C.E, the Nubians established a powerful kingdom called Kush with a capital at Kerma which meant more assimilation and integration with the larger, more complex Egyptian civilization. The Middle Kingdom of 2040-1640 B.C.E. and the New Kingdom of 1550-1070 B.C.E. had pharaohs but they were not as powerful as the Old Kingdom period. The Egyptian civilization finally went into decline and by 1100 B.C.E. were on the defensive against the Nubians and eventually lost to them where the kingdom of Kush was established that ruled over Egypt for almost a century around 760 B.C.E.
Egyptian civilization has a grand legacy in so many areas. The emergence of cities and stratified societies were important and the ancient cities in both Egypt and Nubia became the centers of wealth, commerce, and power. Egyptian civilization was distinctive by having a supreme central ruler in the pharaoh. There was little room for an extensive noble class in Egypt. The Egyptians instead relied on a professional military class. There was also a sophisticated complex of administrators and tax collectors. This meant that Egyptian society had many people of common birth who could attain high positions in society. Both Egyptian and Nubian societies can be seen as patriarchal societies with vested authority over public and private affairs. The elite men enjoyed comfortable positions, amassed wealth, and enjoyed high social status, while the men of the lower classes worked as agricultural workers, carpenters, potters, craftsmen and fishermen.
One of the most important contributions of Egyptian civilization is the sophisticated religious system. The principal gods revered in ancient Egypt were Anon and Re. The Egyptians were firm believers in life after death. For example, one of the most popular god cults that emerged was the cult of Osiris. Egyptians associated the Nile with Osiris and also with immortality and honored him with an observance of high moral standards. The Egyptians could enjoy eternal rewards for those who behaved according to high moral standards. In terms of the Nubians’ religious system, the most prominent Nubian deity was the lion-god Apedemak, and another one was the creator god and divine guardian of humans called Sebiumeker.
Chapter 4: Early Societies in South Asia
The Harappan society developed in the valley of a river, the Indus, among a series of Neolithic era villages along it and emerged as thriving cities over time by 3000 B.C.E. The difficulty in interpreting the society and way of life of the Harappans was that these cities are under the water table and therefore difficult to excavate, while also have struggled to interpret the language used by this ancient peoples. The sophisticated civilization emerged by 2500 B.C.E. Its city center was Mohenho-dare where goldsmiths, weavers, masons, architects, and professionals thrived and the wealth grew significantly. Although they did not build huge palaces or pyramids, there were social classes and the wealthy lived in comfortable living arrangements with private bathrooms with showers and toilets which drained into city sewage systems. These systems are considered some of the most sophisticated of the ancient world.
As the Harappan civilization declined, and soon would face a natural catastrophe, a combination of flooding and earthquakes, the Harappan traditions, customs, and beliefs lived on as the migrations began to flow into the Indian subcontinent and settled throughout the Indus valley and beyond. This included a nomadic people calling themselves Aryans who began to push outward into northern India and beyond. Although the Aryans did not have writing at first, they did have poems and hymns. These represented the Vedas with the most important collection being called the Rig Veda. The Aryan priests eventually compiled in written form the Rig Veda and the other Vedas between 1400 and 900 B.C.E. These Vedas give excellent insights into the religious beliefs, traditions, and customs of the Aryans. Once they evolved more sophisticated political institutions and religious traditions, the Aryans constructed a well-defined social order which became known as the caste system. This featured a sharp distinction between people based on heredity and that made the case system a permanent, unchangeable arrangement. By 1000 B.C.E., the cast system consisted of four which were the Brahmins or priests, the Kshatriyas or warriors/aristocrats, Vaishyyas or cultivators/artisans/merchants, and the Shudras or the landless peasants and serfs. Later on, the lowest caste was added called the Untouchables. This caste system has continued to impact the modern day nation of India.
Vedic India constructed a deeply patriarchal social order and a rich religious tradition evolved. The chief deity of the Rig Veda was Indra. This was primarily a war god. The Aryans also introduced the god Varuna that presided over the sky from his heavenly residence that oversaw the behavior of mortals and preserved the cosmic order. Veruna and his helpers were demanding moral behavior and moral standards and despised lying and evil deeds. The souls of the serious evildoers were delegated to the House of Clay which was the miserable realm of punishment. The Aryan heaven was the spiritual realm known as the World of the Fathers. The Vedas developed into full flower during the Vedic age involving the Upanishads between 800-400 B.C.E. The Upanishads presented the idea that appearances are deceiving and that individual humans are not separate and independent creatures but are members of a larger cosmic order. This means humans are a small part of a universal soul known as Brahman. This is the permanent, eternal, and unchanging foundation for all things that exist and is the only genuine reality. The concept of reincarnation was also introduced and that it meant individual souls were born over and over into the physical world and sometimes were reborn as animals and sometimes even plants or other vegetable matter. The highest goal of the individual soul was to escape this cycle of birth and rebirth to enter the permanent union with Brahman. The Upanishads were also responsible for influencing Indian thought about the need to establish high ethical standards with an emphasis on mercy, honesty, self-control, and charity. They also emphasized respect for all living things because every living thing had a soul.
Chapter 5: Early Society in East Asia
The early civilization of East Asia also rose up along rivers and these rivers were the Yellow River and the Yangzi River. By the end of 3000 B.C.E., these smaller towns and villages began to evolve into larger regional states that included the Xia, Shang, and Zhou. These evolved into sophisticated, complex societies in much the same way as the ancient civilizations elsewhere. They evolved sophisticated religious, social, economic, and political institutions. The Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were all important by being larger states that were extending territorial control over masses of people but they were not embracing all of the territory like later Chinese dynasties. The excavations that have been underway in just recent times have been able to piece together the legacy and history of these ancient dynasties which before were existing mainly in oral traditions and oral tales of these great dynasties.
The Shang dynasty was clearly evolving to a higher level than the Xia dynasty by having the production of bronze tools and weapons along the Yellow River. The professional class of craftsmen that emerged at this time between 1766-1122 B.C.E. featured the production of bronze axes, spears, knives, and arrowheads. This permitted the Shang to overrun the Xia and take control over this territorial region near the Yellow River. The Shang did not establish a centralized state but relied on local rulers and their shared agricultural pursuits. It can be said that Shang society revolved around several large cities and that the administrative and military bureaucracies were extremely powerful and important in holding together the dynasty. Little information exists about how the Shang administered law, justice, and administration but excavations have been producing a greater wealth of material to fill in the spaces and produce a clearer picture of this ancient time period.
The Zhou rose to replace the Shang in 1122 B.C.E. The Zhou remained clearly in power and centralized the power from this period all the way until 256 B.C.E. The Zhou dynasty introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven and that the rulers were governing here on Earth in coordination with the laws and criteria of Heaven. It was this concept that justified a dynastic rule and the rulers were clearly responsible for keeping moral order and moral standards in society through this Mandate of Heaven. The ruler would take the title “Son of Heaven.” This tradition would be retained for Chinese emperors and dynasties through the 12th century. The Zhou were able to rule effectively through decentralization of their authority. This meant power and responsibility was given to lower level administrators at the city and regional levels. This decentralized political system worked for a while but the Zhou rulers centered in Hao, which is modern day Xian, were unable to continue control over the many different regional rulers. For a time, the loyalty was showed by paying taxes and giving soldiers to the ruling family. The collapse of the Zhou dynasty, however, did not happen for a long period because of the decentralized arrangements and the lack of control by the ruling power at the center. It was finally achieved with the emergence of the Qin dynasty in 221 B.C.E.
Royal family and nobility occupied the highest levels of ancient Chinese society. These ruling classes were aware of monopolizing the weaponry and maintaining strong militaries to reinforce their control and rule over others. These Chinese aristocrats possessed large land holdings and they were also usually highly ranked in the administration and military branches of the governments. The other classes of Chinese ranged from the professional craftsmen to the artisans. A large class of peasants in the countryside provided the agricultural, military, and labor services of these dynastic ruling elites of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou in ancient China. The Chinese had a patriarchal society and placed special importance on the worship of ancestors.
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